History of Management Theory Essay - 1113 Words

Running Head: HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT THEORY History of Management Theory Troy Thompson 5409 Foxglove Drive, Bossier City, LA 71112 318-918-7413 Troythompson98@yahoo.com MSM 500 May 21, 2010 Class Instructor: Dr. David Bouvin Ellis University Introduction People and processes are the main elements under management purview, and it is interesting to learn how managerial philosophy pertaining to these two elements has evolved from the Industrial Revolution throughout the Progression Era and into the modern workplace. The purpose of this paper will focus on Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management, also known as the Taylor System, and Elton Mayo’s Human Relations business models and how they relate to this†¦show more content†¦All these adoptions gave rise to a new management school of thought centered around a more productive work place, which Taylor considered to be â€Å"maximum prosperity† (Taylor, 1911). Taylor firmly believed in developing â€Å"captains of industry† rather than waiting on natural-born leaders to come along (Taylor, 1911). He also recognized a need for more involvement from the supervisors in the workplace to help eliminate what he referred to as soldiering, or, laxed employee output. He said, â€Å"The 30 percent to 100 percent increase in wages which the workmen are able to earn beyond what they receive under the old type of management, coupled with the daily intimate shoulder to shoulder contact with the management, entirely removes all cause for soldiering† (Taylor, 1911). As the turn of the twentieth century neared, the progressive landscape begged for more efficient business practices (The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, line 16). This was the optimal time for the principles by which operational capacity could be measured, analyzed, streamlined, and controlled to take hold. This system then became a cornerstone on beset of the Great Depression and followed by future management theorists from then on after. One criticism of Scientific Management is that it demanded top-performance in every worker and near perfect throughput on the production line, developing into a quasi authoritarian-style form of bureaucracy. Workers were afraid to out-produce one another on theShow MoreRelated The History of Scientific Management Theories Essay1198 Words   |  5 PagesIn the history of management thinking, there are many ways to manage an organization, such as scientific management and administrative management. This essay will discuss the notion that scientific management was a ‘good’ idea in the history of management thinking, by looking at the historical backgrounds and political beliefs of economist, also how the develop management theory by conducting experiments, and how their theories made it into the managing business does and how do they work. First ofRead MoreManagement History And How The Theories Fit Today Essay1497 Words   |  6 PagesManagement history and how the theo ries fit in modern society? Choose 3 classical ones. Administrative management by Henry Fayol, scientific management by Frederick Taylor and bureaucratic management by Max Weber were all developed long time ago in the management development history. However, they still have significant influences over the management today and managers today could still apply these ideas to their workplace. This essay is to discuss what these theories are and how they are appliedRead MoreHistory of Management Theory----Human Relations Movement1777 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Human relations movement emerged around the beginning of twenty century. It is defined as  ¡Ã‚ °a movement in management thinking and practice that emphasized satisfaction of employees ¡Ã‚ ¯ basic needs as the key to increased worker productivity. ¡Ã‚ ±(Samson, D., Daft.2005.P.60) To research about the impacts of human relations movement in New Zealand based company is the core of this essay, and in this case, the example of New Zealand based company is OCEANZ seafood Ltd, which is one of theRead MoreStudying Management Unit : Formative Assignment1631 Words   |  7 Pages 2ND NOVEMBER 2015 Candidate number: 23639 Tutor: Peter Nicholls STUDYING MANAGEMENT UNIT – FORMATIVE ASSIGNMENT Discuss whether knowing the history of management is useful for studying management today THE VALUE OF HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT 1. INTRODUCTION A deep knowledge of the history of management, together with a reasonable amount of critical thinking, is perceived as a driver that enables prospective students and managers in enhancing their inventive aptitude and creative capabilities (BridgmanRead MoreCritically evaluate McGregors Theroy X and Theory Y1341 Words   |  6 PagesCritically evaluate McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y. How far is it applicable to management and employee motivation in contemporary Chinese organizations? In the modern corporation environment, employees’ motivation plays a pivotal role, thus they should be recognised as a significant part of corporations’ financial assets. There are several distinct viewpoints of approaches to managerial strategies about motivating employees, one of which is McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y. It proposes that providingRead MoreThe History of Management Essay1267 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Management in business is the coordination of people to accomplish set goals efficiently and effectively. It comprises of planning, organising, staffing, leading, and controlling an organisation. Management itself is also an academic discipline, a social science whose object of study is social organisation in order to accomplish a mutual goal. Since the dawning of civilisation, the value of the collaboration of people has been identified as a powerful method of advancement in all areasRead MoreOrganizational Studies And Management Essay1708 Words   |  7 Pages Assessment No 1 Individual Essay Dispatched by and prepared for: HRM3008 Organisational Change B.A (Hons) Business and Management (Cohort 5) October 2014 Module Submitted By: Kavita Dhawan (UON ID 14439311) INTRODUCTION Management has been proficient a long time period. Organized endeavors focused by people accountable for planning, organizing, leading, and controlling undertakings have occurred for thousands of yearsRead MoreManagement Foundations Essay1635 Words   |  7 PagesManagement Foundations Esay The classical management perspective represents the first well-developed framework of management (Davidson. P. et al, 2000). It’s the framework from which later theories evolved and concerns efficiency and productivity, which in turn leads to effective and efficient management. Scientific management and the Administrative theory are both classical management theories, which provide information on managing in the workplace, which are very useful and vital to have inRead MoreOrganizational Management Approach Analysis : Management And Bureaucratic Theory1421 Words   |  6 PagesOrganizational Management Approach Analysis Managers today have many different options when choosing a managerial theory to implement for their organizations. Knowledgeable managers must be aware of the different historical approaches and also able to determine which approach would be most effective for their unit. The established work structure of my unit currently utilizes elements of classical organizational theory, more specifically scientific management and bureaucratic theory. More recent theories, suchRead MoreEssay on Annotated Bibliographies; Henri Fayols Work Relevance1031 Words   |  5 PagesRodrigues, CA, 2001, ‘Fayol’s 14 principles of management then and now: a framework for managing today’s organizations effectively’, Management Decision, vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 880-889. Rodrigues discusses in some detail how Fayols principles of management individually are/are not used in modern management. He doesnt necessarily hold a contention or argument as he is ultimately comparing and contrasting the world of management in US organisations from early 1900s to now. However the result of

SiriusXM Industry Profile - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 479 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/06/14 Category Management Essay Level High school Tags: Profile Essay Did you like this example? SiriusXM is a satellite radio corporation with approximately 32.7 million subscribers as of 2018. They broadcast music, news, and entertainment programming, mostly ad free, via satellites and corresponding terrestrial facilities. SiriusXM currently controls almost 30% of the US radio market, with its closest competitor, iHeartMedia Inc., trailing behind with only 17.5% of the market under its control. Its primary competitors are iHeartMedia Inc., Entercom Communications Corporation, and Cumulus Media Inc. The company became what it is today through the merging of Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio in 2008, following a year long approval process from the FCC and the United States Department of Justice. XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio started airing programming via satellite in 2001 and 2002, respectively, but each company was founded in the early 90s pursuing the audio industry with the then current technology. The current company focuses on the US market primarily. They do not broadcast abroad, although they do have a division in Canada. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "SiriusXM Industry Profile" essay for you Create order Revenue is accumulated through subscription fees users pay to have programming delivered to their cars. Some talk shows and sports programming make money through traditional advertising, but this is minimal and not the norm. SiriusXM has partnerships with Acura, BMW, Ford, Kia, Subaru, and every other major car manufacturer in the United States, all of which manufacture cars with satellite compatible equipment so drivers dont have to purchase satellite radios apart from their automobile. SiriusXM is publicly traded, and the current share price is $6.14, down 11% from last month, likely due to the public believing their purchasing of Pandora was overvalued. Consequently, Pandoras stock shot up by 13% in September of 2018 when the deal was announced, because many were buying the Pandora stock they knew would soon merge with Sirius XM stock. Even with the devaluing of SiriusXM stock, the price of a share has only gone down 2% in the past six months and has actually gone up 6.98% in the past year, showing an overall positive trend. This bodes well for Liberty Media, which owns approximately 70% of Sirius XM stock as of May 2018. As previously stated, SiriusXM is planning to merge with past competitor Pandora for $3.5 billion, signaling a shift into Internet Radio following the advent of streaming services like Pandora, Spotify, and Tidal. This deal has been approved since September 2018, but will not be official until some point during the first quarter of the following year. Through this deal SiriusXM will gain the audience Pandora currently possesses and both companies will benefit from the natural synergy of merging these two audio powerhouses. The company recently launched SiriusXM with 360L, a new service, airing through satellite but customized through the internet, which takes in what users listen to and customizes their experience with recommendations and spotlight channels. This service is subsequent to them recently launching an On Demand option for users. SiriusXMs revenue is projected to go up by 8.6% to $5,889 million in 2018, from $5,425.1 million in 2017.

Professional Development Plan Essay - 1171 Words

Program of Study and Professional Development Plan Walden University NURS 6000-8, Success Strategies in the Masters of Science Program in Nursing March 4, 2012 Program of Study and Professional Plan The purpose of this assignment is to develop my own personal plan to meet my educational goals at Walden University. It also allows me to begin a dialog with my instructor about my interests and goals and to give a background of my educational and professional experience. Personal and Professional Goals My name is Sherri Teare and I have been in nursing for 26 years. I am a mother of two adult children and have been married to my high school sweetheart for 28 years. With the empty nest syndrome in full swing, I have†¦show more content†¦program. I took a position on a behavioral health unit in a larger hospital in a nearby town. There I worked the night shift part-time, which allowed me the flexibility to complete my studies. I have been working on the same unit since graduating 12 years ago. I truly love my job and the hospital that I work for. I hope I am able to continue with this organization after receiving my graduate degree. I recently became certified as a psychiatric and mental health nurse. I serve on our unit practice council helping to find solutions to unit specific issues. I have also served on the hospital wide nurse’s week committee, and a fall prevention committee. Initially I thought that I had little research exp erience except for gathering information regarding falls and looking for solutions to prevent them. Then I began thinking about all of the times that I have turned to journal articles when looking for information related to best practices in patient care. I hope to learn to develop a better understanding of the research process and to conduct my own research in courses to come. Learning Goals Through this course I expect to become familiar with the online learning format. I have never taken online courses previously so I plan to learn the skills necessary for me to become a successful online scholar. Practicum This is the first time I have actuallyShow MoreRelatedProfessional Development Plan1604 Words   |  6 PagesProfessional Development Plan The world is going through an era of rapid professional change and development. This has led to increased uncertainty for all professionals in the world of work. To ensure sustained growth in success and longevity of ones professional career, it is important to develop a strategic plan that focuses on training and developing a professional. Such a plan aims to put one in a position of advantage for employment in the long term in this rapidly changing professional worldRead MoreProfessional Development Plan1601 Words   |  7 Pages Professional development is the development of new or existing skills, knowledge and aptitudes to improve one’s marketablilty, portability, performance and self worth (McKellar, 1996). This paper outlines my top three professional goals, resources required for achieving these goals, and a resource constrained schedule. The strategic formulation of my goals, required resources and schedule coalesce to form my Professional Development Plan (PDP). The first goal is a short term goal required forRead MoreProfessional Development Plan896 Words   |  4 PagesProfessional Development Plan The group members of Learning Team A took a DISC assessment to determine their personality types, strengths and weaknesses, and areas needing improvement. The members of the group are (your name). The Professional Development Plan will describe the strengths and weaknesses of each personality type, characteristics each type share and characteristics that could cause conflict, and how each type can work together. Along with showing how I the manager can better my abilityRead MoreProfessional Development Plan2090 Words   |  9 PagesProfessional Development Plan AED 201 Teaching as a Profession August , 2010 Kymm Corbin The goals I have set for myself for the next five years are to becoming a successful, dependable, and productive teacher. The road to for filling this goal will have many adversities such as long hours of instruction from a six years degree program from University of Phoenix. I will have to dedicate my efforts and time in to achieve this process of obtaining my degrees. The way to achieve these goals it toRead MoreCareer Plan For A Professional Development Plan1109 Words   |  5 PagesProfessional Development Plan The purpose of this professional development plan is to introduce my counselor identity, my plans for professional development, my clinical and academic training schedule and finally my plans for credentialing in the State of Maryland. I am currently seeking an MS in Clinical Mental Health Counseling with an anticipated graduation date of May, 2020. This professional development plan was written on September 27, 2017. Counselor Identity Statement I accept those aroundRead MorePurpose Of A Professional Development Plan1733 Words   |  7 PagesPurpose of a Professional Development Plan For many of us, self-improvement has taken on a central role in our lives. Part of the thought behind how we want to live our lives includes looking at the habits and lifestyles of people who have the same kind of values that we want to meet. Employers may also prefer to hire people who will take initiative to grow and develop their skills in years to come. Development involves reviewing and determining the various attributes of an individual as wellRead MoreProfessional Roles And Development Plan1206 Words   |  5 PagesProfessional Roles and Development Plan The nursing workforce plays an essential role in our health care system and the role of nursing is evolving due to shortage of nurses, new emerging technology within the healthcare system and the needs to provide quality of care in the most cost effective ways. The focus of this paper is to analyze the roles and the required skills of the baccalaureate prepared nurse in the 21st century healthcare system. In addition, I will also describe my career developmentRead MoreNursing Professional Development Plan1383 Words   |  6 PagesProfessional Development Plan: Professional development is entirely about constant learning and education to enable me as a nurse, deliver the paramount services to my patients and society. The reason for this assignment is to allow me to provide a depiction of my educational, professional background as well as personal goals correlated to the course work and the practicum. â€Å"Your professional development should NOT be random or ad hoc! Your learning should be well thought-out, systematic and managedRead MoreProfessional And Personal Development Plan810 Words   |  4 Pages Professional Personal Development Plan Hiqmat. D. Bello A professional development plan is a plan written by an individual that consist of an strength and weakness , opportunities and the likely challenges to be faced in his personal and development life. I will start here by explaining what my personal development plan are in relation to my strength and weaknesses. I willRead MoreProfessional Development Plan Essay1410 Words   |  6 Pagesposition so that I can prepare myself fully. I am currently working with exceptional adult students on all levels and will continue to pursue a teaching position at Benjamin Franklin elementary school as a full time teacher. As a long term plan for professional growth for staff members in student achievement, management skills, and staff morale is to identify areas of strengths as well as needs in employee performance such as leadership, taking responsibility for the progress of all students to ensure

The Analyze Actions of Abbott and Ethics †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Analyze Actions of Abbott and Ethics. Answer: Every person who is a part of the society has ethical obligation in relation to other individuals and the society as a whole. In order to maintain peace and harmony in the society the government along with the presence of voluntary and unmodified ethics has in place mandatory and codified legal principles which person must comply with in relation to their actions. The purpose of the paper is to analyze actions of Abbott in the light of an ethical theory as well as from legal perspective. The theory which has been selected for analyzing the situation is that of Rights and Duties. According to the theory of Rights and Duties it is the obligation of a person to provide protection to rights and ensure the performance of duties. The rights and duties which are provided and imposed on a person are nearly absolute[1]. This means that under a very few, if any circumstances, only they can be compromised with. Therefore, a person is expected to ensure protection of rights along with the performance of duties under all circumstances. Thelaw does not permit stealing or theft in any situation or circumstances. A poor person cannot indulge in the act of stealing just because he is poor and has to steal for meeting is basic needs. A person is not allowed to make a defense in court that they had indulged in stealing because they were in dire needs[2]. It has been provided through the facts that Abbott is a student who comes from a poor family and he has to pay for his studies as well as contribute towards his family. He has also been recently diagnosed with iron deficiency and thus has been advised to incorporate iron into the diet which can be done by having more meat. He has further been instigated by his friends to steal from grocery stores. The moral reasoning behind the act is that stores earn a lot and have a responsibility to help poor students. According to Moorthy et al., It is the moral as well as legal duty of a person not to deprive any other person of their property in an unjust manner which includes theft[3]. There is no right which is provided to individuals where they are allowed to steel from other in any situation[4]. Thus the actions of Abbott in relation to stealing cannot be stated as being justified he does not have the right to do so in any situation. He may approach other government departments for help in relation to his problem but not steal from someone else. It is also his duty to ensure that he does not cause harm to other persons in the society which he has done to Ms Costello by stealing. In addition if he justifies his action of stealing as a matter of right that every person in need would be allowed to steal in the society and this would create a chaos[5]. Thus in this situation not only a legal breach has been made by Abbott but also an ethical breach in the light of Rights and Duties ethical reaso n. References Amos, T., et al. "The majority of crime: theft, motoring and criminal damage (including arson),[in:] Forensic Psychiatry: Clinical, Legal and Ethical Issues, J." Boca Raton (2014). Chris MacDonald, Law 122 Ethical Reasoning Module, Toronto, 2013.. Goh, Edmund, and Sandra Kong. "Theft in the hotel workplace: Exploring frontline employees perceptions towards hotel employee theft." Tourism and Hospitality Research (2016) Moorthy, M. Krishna, et al. "Employee perceptions of workplace theft behavior: A study among supermarket retail employees in Malaysia." Ethics Behavior 25.1 (2015): 61-85.

Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack

Rome with a Christian Face? Early Byzantine Art 330–527 The discussion of Byzantine art represents a challenge for the researcher. The main issue about Byzantine art is that it demonstrates incompliance with the traditional chronologically-based methodologies of art. Standardly perceived as the art of â€Å"religious icons†, Byzantine art can be defined as the religious art spanning a period of thousand years from 330 to 1453 and centering in the Christian society of Constantinople (Cormack 2).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In a way, Byzantine art is timelessness: Christian themes are constant and unchanging throughout its periods. The change and development occurred via new forms of expression and new subjects. The key feature of Byzantine art is that it is mostly religious. The Bible was the main source of inspiration, an d most objects of art created at that time were considered sacred. Constantinople was the place that played a dominated role in the history of Byzantine art. It was brought to glory as a large metropolis according to the ambitious plan of emperor Constantine. Kilometers of protective walls and aqueducts built by 330 made Constantinople an impregnable stronghold that attracted new citizens by its broad spacious streets. Due to many disastrous fires and gales, the city changed its face repeatedly throughout history, and gradually gained the reputation of a â€Å"collage city† (Cormack 9). Masterpieces were brought to Constantinople from all over Greece and Asia Minor. But the unique feature of Byzantine art proper was that it never used the classical Greek works of art as a sample for imitation. Although Constantinople is mostly associated with the life of Christian society, the city was not established as Christian initially. Started as a typically Roman base with a hippodrome for chariot races, it gradually evolved into a Christian shrine, when a vast collection of holy relics was brought from Jerusalem and St Sophia Cathedral was designed as the center of the Christian empire. Therefore, Christian art as such did not originate in Constantinople. It flourished already in the third century all around the Roman empire, which can be illustrated by the wall paintings in the mud-brick houses of Syria (Cormack 13). The schematic manner of presentation in those paintings is rather traditional. But the innovatory issues are traced in the subject matter which is Christian: the paintings feature motifs of death and salvation from the Old and the New Testament. The Christians of the time used art as a way of communicating their main ideas on life after death. Consequently, scenes including Jonah image were especially popular because Jonah’s rescue from the wale’s inside reminded of Christ’s resurrection from sepulcher (Cormack 14).Advertising Looking for critical writing on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The early art in Byzantium preserved the images of imperial Rome, as well as continued developing the Christian traditions. Marble sarcophagi, reliefs, and statues were still parts of the city landscape. However, in the sixths century the art of sculpture experienced an overall decline, and marble was thus often recycled for building new Christian churches. Apart from marble, such materials were used as stone, brick, and wood. This diversity of materials was made possible by the breadth of Byzantine geographical borders: the empire spanned the territories of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestina, Egypt, North Africa, Italy, and much of the Balkans and Greece (Cormack 17). But this geographical variety was centralized and governed by the city of Constantinople which was the symbol of Byzantine power and control. The location of the Byzantine empire both in t he east and in the west provided for the specific marriage of different traditions in Byzantine art. Such blend represents a stumbling block for art historians, since the issue of whether Byzantine art is separate from the western style or it developed according to standards common for both. The multifacetedness of Byzantine art makes it difficult to classify the art into self-contained periods. And yet, an attempt to classify early Byzantine art can be made basing on the key historical events: the rise of Constantinople under emperor Constantine (324–337), the expansion of the Byzantine empire under Justinian (527–565), and the iconoclastic policy of emperor Leo III (717–741) (Cormack 18). In the difficult task of surveying the diversity of Byzantine art, the researchers face two extremes. On the one hand, there has been an immense loss of historical material due to natural disasters and hostility acts. On the other hand, the variety of the remaining material m ay puzzle an unprepared observer by the kaleidoscope of time and places it covers. From this discrepancy emerges a problematic issue: â€Å"whether to treat all the different media and materials that Byzantine art employs together or separately?† (Cormack 21–22). Tracing each branch of Byzantine art in chronological order appears a complex problem, since many artists worked with several types of material simultaneously. In addition, old and new art was equally displayed in Byzantine reality, and therefore Byzantine art demonstrates a unique quality of continuity combining tradition and innovation. Demonstrative of the balance of continuity and change in Byzantine art are two samples of different time periods. The earlier sample is a â€Å"vast monumental mosaic†, the later one is a â€Å"small portable icon† (Cormack 23). At first sight, both of them appear to depict the same subject — Christian saints in heaven after their death. Saints are a univ ersal topic for Christian art, but the choice of specific saints for depiction may point out significant differences in the topic of the artwork.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Certain visual clues allow for distinguishing the two samples from each other. The enormous mosaic in the dome of the church is largely damaged, and the preserved part features seventeen figures. Despite the fact that the saints are named, there is no visible clue as to the logics of their arrangement. The central position in the mosaic was probably occupied by the figure of Christ surrounded by flying angels. An analysis of the possible thematic scope prompts the idea that the subject matter of the mosaic could be the Second Coming. This powerful image produced an unquestionable visual effect on the early Christians and signified the glory and triumph of the Chri stian church over the ideas of the antiquity in the late fifth – early sixth century (Cormack 29–30). Representing a later period in Byzantine art, the small icon is â€Å"a work of art of a different form [†¦] and function† (Cormack 30). Similar to the mosaic in its subject matter, the icon represents a group of saints surrounding Christ. In contrast to the mosaic, Christ is depicted not at the moment of the Second Coming but as a baby sitting in his mother’s lap. The scene represented in the icon can be identified as the Sunday of Orthodoxy. Along with other figures, it features â€Å"iconophile champions† who struggled in 726–843 for recognition of icons as a symbol of the Orthodox church (Cormack 32). In this sense, the icon presents the topic of true and firm belief in the core values of the Orthodox church. In the Shadow of St. Sophia Byzantine Art in the Sixth Century and Its Aftermath 527–680 Despite the fact that the dev elopment of Byzantine art may seem quite gradual, there existed several turning points that marked significant change. In the sixth century such crucial event occurred on the Christmas Day 537, when emperor Justinian dedicated the renovated church of St Sophia. Destroyed by fire in 532, the church was restored in record short period and demonstrated a qualitatively new interpretation of church symbolism. The new St Sophia was proclaimed â€Å"a holy place, a house of prayer, the assembly of the people, the body of Christ, [†¦] an earthly heaven [that] represents the Crucifixion, Burial, and Resurrection of Christ† (Cormack 37). Symbolic of so many Christian values, St Sophia was the heart of Constantinople and a place for public and state contemplation of God. In its interiors, scenes and events from the New Testament were reenacted and thus provided a powerful historical link and revival of the Biblical narratives. The peculiarity of St Sophia interior of the time was t hat, unlike the latter trends in decoration, it did not contain any figurative mosaics. Rather, the presence of God was visualized by more objective and universal symbols: the sign of cross was repeated over and again in golden colors. There could be several reasons for such simple yet efficient solution. On the one hand, the restoration of St Sophia had to be completed in shortest terms, and avoiding complicated mosaics saved time and effort.Advertising Looking for critical writing on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, if there had been any figurative images, the viewer’s gaze would stop on each individual scene and not perceive the overall grandeur of the church. St Sophia indeed impresses by its sizes: about 56 meters high, 30 meters wide, and 60 meters long, the building’s nave was much broader than that of a typical Gothic cathedral (Cormack 40). As for the interior decoration of St Sophia, in the sixth century it was characterized by especial lightness and freshness that resulted from absence of heavy figurative mosaics. Only eight porphyry columns were left, and the walls were covered with veined marble. Carved monograms of emperor Justinian and empress Theodora spread all over the colonnades. Although attention was definitely given to details, the moderateness of the embellishment signifies shortness of time for the church restoration. The main decorative function was therefore placed on the sculptural carvings. The attention, effort, and finance invested in the renovation of St Sophia by emperor Justinian emphasize the significant role church played in the political life of the time. After a series of successful military campaigns, the Byzantine empire stretched out immensely and was in need of powerful controlling mechanisms, of which morale was the key factor. Following the experience of the Romans, Justinian realized that not only administrative and legal system should be universal for all, but also the common religious creed mattered. Thus the stronghold of Christianity as a guiding religion for the empire was emphasized in the newly revived St Sophia in Constantinople. With the emergence of St Sophia as the central church which outshone the others by its splendor and grandeur, there still remained the tradition of pilgrimage to holy places. One of the most significant locations personally for emperor Justinian was the church of the Archangel Michael at Germia in Asia Minor (Cormack 45). It contained a grand ivory carving of Archa ngel Michael, presumably Justinian’s patron throughout his life. The prayer on the carving symbolized the emperor’s humility in face of the divine power. To commemorate his deceased wife Theodora, emperor Justinian built another masterpiece of Byzantine art, a fortified monastery of St Catherine on the Egyptian mount of Sinai. A popular destination for pilgrims already in the fourth century, mount Sinai was an ideal place for monks to retire from the vanities of the world and spend time in prayer and worship of God. The Sinai church, a wooden-roofed basilica, was surrounded by high walls and guarded by armed garrison. As a symbol of divine protections, multiple crosses were carved in the walls. The interior of the Sinai church itself was changed with the time, but in the sixth century it was mostly dominated by carvings and mosaics. The latter depicted, inter alia, the biblical events mostly related to mount Sinai: Moses at the Burning Bush and Moses receiving the Tabl ets of the Law (Cormack 50). Bright colors and gold in which the images were performed nearly blinded the visitor and thus produced the maximum impact and inspired the feelings of profound veneration. The significance of Justinian’s rule for development of Byzantine art cannot be overestimated. Together with restoring St Sophia and reinforcing the Sinai monastery, emperor Justinian promoted Byzantine art on the western borders of the Byzantine empire. The location most demonstrative of the emperor’s involvement is the north Italian city of Ravenna. Initially supporting the Arian branch of the Christian religion, the city could boast a spectacular mosaics in the church of S. Apollinare Nuovo. The enormous scale of Biblical events depicted in the mosaics can be imagined by realizing that only a small part of it contained already twenty-six scenes from Christ’s life (Cormack 55). After the 540 conquest of Ravenna by Justinian’s army, the Arian politics of th e city experienced a radical turn. This was also reflected in the religious artworks: the depictions of the previous ruler were removed from S.  Apollinare Nuovo mosaics, and a large group of Orthodox saints was added instead. Another building embodying Byzantine imperial power and reflecting the ambitious aspirations of its rulers was the church of S. Vitale in Ravenna. Housing the relicts of the local martyr Vitalis, the building reflected many of Byzantine art characteristic. On the one hand, the marble columns of the church resembled many of the kind made of the same material in Constantinople. On the other hand, the church of S. Vitale contains powerful images of most influential Byzantine emperor and empress, which adds an additional link between Constantinople and the western borders of the empire. The two mosaics depict emperor Justinian and empress Theodore who had actually never been to Ravenna. But their presence and participation in the liturgy is emphasized by the obj ects they are carrying: Justinian is holding bread and Theodora bears a goblet of wine, which played a crucial role in Orthodox ceremony. Despite of the effort emperor Justinian took to build and maintain the grandeur of his vast empire, his creation did not survive for long. But the consequences of his rule for Byzantine art were significant. The culture of monks flourished; churches and monasteries were generously sponsored and thus survived the crisis of the Dark Ages (Cormack 65). This emergence of monasteries as keepers of the Byzantine culture allowed for efficient replacement of whatever artworks were lost with new ones. A popular medium of expression was found in painted icons, and multiple prescriptions and canons of depiction appeared depending on the view of Christ by the clergy. The large number of icons signifies the transition to a more personal kind of emotional involvement with prayer and worship. The Definition of an Orthodox Christian Empire Byzantine Art 680â€⠀œ843 The peculiarity of studying Byzantine art is connected with the fact that the transformations occurring in art are deeply rooted in the reconsideration of the social functions of art. The situation is further complicated by the issue of especial timelessness of Byzantine artworks and their stylistic ambiguity. Therefore, Byzantine art cannot be considered from position of style change alone. The flowering of religious art in the time of emperor Justinian’s rule can thus be explained by the significant social function performed by Byzantine art of the time. The especial realism of icons in Justinian’s time was called to bring the Biblical meanings and messages closer to the average people. A system of visual and written clues would provide clear hints for even the illiterate to recognize certain saints. The latter would usually possess significant distinctive features or attributes. An especial significance was placed on the way the saints looked at the viewer: th e gaze was by large one of the main composites of the icon and reflected the popular belief about protection from the evil eye (Cormack 77). After emperor Justinian had died, there is observed a decrease in the quantity of artwork. However, the significance of art in everyday life for prayer and instruction. The debatable issue that emerged was that the abundance of icons challenged the authority of the saints and lead to the increasing importance of the icons proper. Gradually, a view was adopted that â€Å"icons were not made by hand† (achieropoietos) but rather appeared miraculously and thus represented the healing powers and protection of Christ (Cormack 77). Among the most outstanding examples of such achieropoietos were the Mandylion of Edessa at Sinai, the mosaic of Christ in the church of Hosios David at Thessaloniki, and the Kamouliana icon of Christ in Cappadocia (Cormack 77–78). One of the situations that had a crucial impact on the development of Byzantine art was the rise and expansion of Islam. Initially taken as just another occurrence of heresy by the Byzantines, Islam actually had much more lasting and deep consequences for Byzantine art. Along with the military confrontation, a surprising blending and cooperation between the two cultures could be observed. One of the demonstrative examples of such cooperation is the mosaic of the Great Mosque at Damascus that uses ornaments similar to those in the Christian Rotunda in Thessaloniki (Cormack 79–80). In addition, the Islamic leaders coined money which closely resembled Byzantine monetary standards. This cultural cooperation was significantly damaged when around 692 emperor Justinian II reformed the design of Byzantine gold nomisma: the obverse featured the face of Christ, while the emperor’s image occupied a secondary position on the reverse (Cormack 80). In reply, all imagery on Islamic coins was substituted by koranic verses. These events first brought the image of Christ in the secular sphere of money. A second version of Byzantine coin was made after Justinian II had recaptured the throne in 705, and Christ was depicted very unconventionally there: without a nimbus and with a very short beard. The two Byzantine coins bore not only a religious message but that of social and political significance. The first one represented a â€Å"distinctive Byzantine Orthodox identity in face of Islam and other rivals†; the second one emphasized Justinian II’s message that â€Å"Byzantium stood for good order in every aspect of life† (Cormack 81). The coins served as signs of national and cultural identification of the Byzantine people. The other situation that entailed grave consequences on the course of Byzantine art of the time was the way the church responded to the changing social and political environment. A determining event occurred in 692 when the Quinisext Council adopted over a hundred canons, most of which defined the furthe r development and social functioning of Byzantine art. Thus, for example, the image of cross was prohibited to be placed on the floor; Christ should be represented not in symbols but in His own form (Cormack 82). Thus, together with a generally positive attitude to icons as significant part of Orthodox Christianity, the Council also demonstrated the need for control over the iconic form and content. It is not difficult to see a political motive underlying such attitude: the orderly life in the Christian Byzantine empire was inseparable from the compliance of Christ’s image to the demands of clear representation. In the situation of increasing state control over the form and content of religious images, a point was reached when counter reaction was quite inevitable. During most of the eighth century and the first half of the ninth century, the art of icon painting was trapped between two contradictive extremes. On the one pole, there were the ideas of iconoclasm that called to destruction of icons. The ideas of iconoclasm were formulated in 754 during the Council of Hieria. Basing on the quote from the Bible, a second commandment given to Moses that disapproved of any graven image, the Council ruled that icons should be announced illegitimate (Cormack 87). Thus they solved the issue of paganism and its residuals in the Christian Byzantium. On the other pole, there were the ideas of iconophiles, who assembled in 787 at the Council of Nicaea and ruled that veneration of icons did not possess an idolatrous nature and therefore could be allowed (Cormack 87). Against this background, a fierce dispute unfolded between the two opposing groups. Unfolding not only in theory, but also in practice, the iconoclastic activities involved destruction of iconic images from such significant object of Byzantine art as St  Sophia in Constantinople and many others. The gold mosaics of St Sophia representing images of Christ and saints were ruthlessly scraped off and icons were taken down (Cormack 94). It should be noted, however, that the attacks of iconoclasts concerned not the art as such but the nature and social purpose. The art continued to be produced but simply in smaller quantities and a different quality. A bright example of iconoclastic art can be found in the church of St  Eirene in Constantinople. After an earthquake in 740, it was restored with mosaics featuring religious texts and the shape of the cross. Thus the main feature of iconoclastic art was avoiding any representation of the image of Christ and saints and substituting those images with the symbol of life-giving cross. Another illustration of iconoclasm in art can be seen in the Khludov Psalter of mid-ninth century. The earliest collection of illustrated psalms, this book contains images symbolic of the prolonged struggle between iconoclasts and iconophiles. This struggle for icons has been the key feature of Christian Orthodox church identity ever since. Developments and Div ersions in the Consolidated Empire Middle Byzantine Art 843–1071 As iconoclasm was defeated in 843, the Byzantine art witnessed a period of revival and restoration of the holy icon. The mutual support between the church and the state was unprecedented: the Byzantine empire was once again restored as a state ruled by order and certainty drawn from firm Christian belief. Such attitude is laid out in emperor Constantine VII’s written piece The Book of Ceremonies (Cormack 105). Monasteries flourished once again as places of active struggle against iconoclasm, and the role of monks in this struggle was radically reconsidered. Although the model for psalm books was still the Khludov Psalter of the ninth century, the pictures of Patriarch Nikephoros as a vigorous iconophile are replaced with those of the monk St Theodore (Cormack 106). Such substitution evidences the shift of significance from patriarch to monk in struggle against iconoclasm. The two hundred years starting fr om mid-ninth centuries are described by art historians as a second â€Å"Golden Age† of Byzantine art, or â€Å"Macedonian Renaissance† (Cormack 108). Those definitions apply mostly to the especially wide range of artworks and techniques created and developed throughout the period. After the dark times of iconoclasm, the innovations of Macedonian Renaissance appeared more as return to the past traditions of Byzantine art. The latter were significantly expanded by new themes and approaches. An example can be seen in the Paris Psalter of mid-tenth century, where — unlike the Khludov Psalter — emphasis is made on the textual contents. Apart from psalms and illustrations to them, the Paris Psalter includes a vast theological and scholarly commentary on the sacred texts (Cormack 109). As the renaissance period was market by return to pre-iconoclastic tradition, it becomes easy to trace connections between the pre- and post-iconoclastic artworks and note the in novations in the latter. Thus, for example, the post-iconoclastic mosaics of Koimisis monastery at Nicaea is performed in a traditional technique. But differently colored materials and differently sized cubes in faces and clothes prompt that it was created already after the struggle against iconoclasm. Another instance of merging tradition and innovation is seen in the art of coinage. The iconoclast emperor Leo III rejected the Christian imagery of money coined by Justinian II and ordered that both the obverse and the reverse of the coin represent a portrait of an emperor. In mid-ninth century, emperor Michael III started coining money with the image of Christ on the obverse. The idea was not a mere allusion to the coin design of Justinian II. Every line copied the old version and the inscription â€Å"Jesus Christ† dispelled any doubt as to the image presented on the coin (Cormack 114). Thus, the coin design became a powerful declaration of return to the past. In this period of revival and consolidation, not only the old themes and styles were restored but also the connection with the eastern parts of the Byzantine empire was emphasized. Emperors brought items from the legendary east to their palaces and openly placed them for general admiration. Such was the throne of Solomon, surrounded by golden lions, birds, and trees; according to legends, the lions would roar and the birds would sing when the emperor was sitting on the throne. The solution of this mystery could be that there was an organ built in the throne to produce the amazing sounds. The idea for the throne presumably originated from the court of Persia (Cormack 115). In addition to the technology of organ-building, the emperor court and the church often used such oriental inventions as Persian silk draperies, as well as elements of Arabic writing. The Byzantine empire was once again open and welcoming other cultures. After the radical stripping the St Sophia church off its mosaics by the ico noclasts, a new look corresponding to the new vision of religious art had to be given to the building which was the center of Christian empire. Provided the amount of expertise, time, and work required by the large-scale projects, the efforts of patriarch Photios cannot be overestimated. His speech on the dedication of the first mosaic in St Sophia after iconoclasm, Virgin and the Child, is demonstrative by its deep intellectual analysis. Photios emphasized the double significance of Mary’s image both as â€Å"lifelike imitation† and â€Å"real archetype† and interpreted it as a reminder of salvation and necessity of reverence to God (Cormack 119–120). Other mosaics of the church featured essentially timeless scenes from the Bible and at the same time reflected the events of the period, immortalizing the prominent patriarchs and emperors of the time. Important accents were placed on the kind of relations between emperors and God. Humility, repentance in f ace of God, and generosity were the key qualities to be demonstrated by ideal Byzantine emperors and depicted in various mosaics of St Sophia. Thus, the main social norms of the time were established through art which once again proved an excellent means of communication. To any of the visitors, the artistic decorations of St Sophia clearly represented a picture of the contemporary cultural and political state of Byzantine society. In the case of historical analysis of art, the term ‘renaissance’ is mostly applied to the period of Italian art between fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. Justification of Macedonian Renaissance faces the issue of whether artworks created at that time were recreations of the classical samples or whether they were innovations based on the knowledge of classical and Christian art. Compared to Italian art radical revolution towards the standards of the Ancient Greece and Rome that was based on close study of authentic ancient texts, the Byzant ine knowledge of its past art was scarce. The aggressive period of iconoclasm by large destroyed a big share of classical Byzantine art and left scarce traces of it for the coming generations. Instead of merely copying the classical samples, Byzantine artists of the tenth century rather handled the new techniques they developed against the background of classical values and ideas. The New Spirituality of the Eleventh Century and the World of the Twelfth Century After the triumphant revival Byzantine art experienced with the defeat of iconoclasm, Orthodox faith found its expression through a vast range of artistic means. The church of St Sophia was redecorated by mosaics of unprecedented scope, and Constantinople was as always dictating its will to the rest of the empire. In such situation there emerges an issue of whether Constantinople was an artistic center ever since the fall of iconoclasm and whether the provinces had any artistic traditions of their own. On the one hand, monast eries and churches were built and decorated all over the Byzantine empire, which evidences that cultural interest was not concentrated in the capital city only. On the other hand, it often occurred that artists from Constantinople were invited to remote areas for design and decoration of buildings, which emphasizes the exclusive nature of contemporary artistic knowledge and skills. Such materials as ivory, silk, mosaics, and enamels have traditionally been ascribed to Constantinople artisans. In certain rare cases, such as with the city of Thessaloniki, the province had the means to support and develop its own workshops. But still if attention is turned to details, dominance and prevalence of Constantinople artwork is traced in many locations. Such is the case with the church of St Sophia in Sinai: the style of figures and mosaics is similar to that represented in Constantinople. On the other hand, the interior of other churches in the region suggests a cooperation between the capit al and local artists. If Byzantine art is to be considered as that exceeding the borders of Constantinople only, this attitude is supported by examples of churches found in rural areas of Asia Minor and Cappadocia (Cormack 149). Whatever the case may be, the triumphant position of the Orthodox church at period discussed facilitated quantitative and qualitative intensification in art production. One of the most significant changes of the was the transformation of the church sanctuary. In early Byzantine churches, the division between spaces for the clergy and for the laypeople was purely symbolical, not more than a humble barrier (Cormack 150). However, after the defeat of iconoclasm, the meaning and importance of the sanctuary increased dramatically, and so did the artwork decorating the place. A screen called templon was set up to divide the areas for laypeople and the places where bread and wine were kept (Cormack 151). In the centre of the screen the Royal Doors were situated, th rough which the priest would bring out the bread and wine symbolizing the body and blood of Christ. This screen developed through centuries and was gradually covered with an increasing amount of icons that would forever cover the sanctuary from the eyes of the laypeople. Such development of the sanctuary screen naturally required an unprecedented amount of icons to be made and venerated. Apart from the templon, icons were used on the adjacent walls and shrines dedicated to individual saints. Icons of the latter were created according to the following scheme: in the center of the icon, the key scene from the saint’s life was depicted and surrounded by smaller images of biographical moments. The daily calendar of the church also had to be illustrated with icons, and this was done either by separate icon for each occasion or by calendar icons including sets of several monthly icons (Cormack 152). During the period from ninth to fourteenth century, the quantity of icons on the sa nctuary increased dramatically and had a double effect on the perception of the religious sacrament. On the one hand, the shield of icons increased the mystery over the sanctuary and the altar of the church. On the other hand, the images of the icons brought the divine holiness closer to laypeople and made it more understandable for them. Step by step, icons transformed their initial meaning from illustrations of religious history into visual aids directly incorporated in the liturgy. Icons of the eleventh and twelfth centuries reflect a gradual change to their nature and meaning: for the first time, the heavenly ladder is depicted and thus the ideas of divine light and salvation are promoted. One of the peculiarities of the period was the separation of monasteries from the church headed by the ‘secular’ patriarch. Emotional and social life of contemporary Byzantium was dominated by monasteries that gave refuge to those who wanted to follow Christ’s life on earth . The society delegated the task of worshiping God to monasteries and generously endowed them for it. Since in Christian Orthodox practice, art was the way â€Å"to assist and enhance spiritual experience†, monasteries played a central role in developments of art at that time (Cormack 158). Emperors patronized monasteries, and one of the brightest examples of it was the 1136 monastery of Christ Pantokrator. Comprising three churches, a hospital, an old people’s home, and a leprosarium, the monastery could boast interiors decorated with marble, stained glass, and mosaics. Hosting such relics as a stone on which Christ’s body supposedly rested after Crucifixion, and the prestigious icon of Virgin Hodigitra, the monastery attracted pilgrims and their generous donations (Cormack 161). For the purpose of understanding the ways Christian Byzantine art developed outside Constantinople and its suburbs, it is instructive to consider Christian monasteries that functioned in Greece during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Greek Hosios Lukas monastery comprised three churches (Theotokos church, katholikon, and the crypt church). The peculiar features of the first church are the lion-headed gargoyles on the dome and the pseudo-Arabian decorations of the exterior. The katholikon is filled with marble sarcophagi and decorated with multiple wall paintings that provided a less time-consuming substitute for mosaics. The crypt church is thematically connected with the images of katholikon: the katholikon mosaic of Doubting Thomas is copied in the crypt wall painting (Cormack 165–167). In another Greek monastery, Daphni, a certain semblance in decoration types may be traced with Hosios Lukas. However, the depiction style is different: the figures are more natural and less generalized. Such minor variations suggest that the ways of depiction varied depending on the immediate needs of a given religious community. The political situation around the Byzantine empire had changed dramatically during the two centuries. The Christian world faced the opposition between the Orthodox and the Latin church. Byzantines were driven from Italy by the Normans. Princes of Kiev established their own powerful state of Kiev Rus’. Serbian, Bulgarian, and Hungarian people demonstrated autonomous tendencies as well. However, despite the gradual loss of territorial influence, the Byzantine empire managed to extend its existence by introducing its art forms and techniques to the rest of the world. Samples of Byzantine art were created in Spain, Kiev Rus’, and Italy, which helped to preserve Byzantine culture by marrying it to that of western Europe. Art in the Service of a Failing Society Late Byzantine Art 1204–1453 The event that defined the fate of Byzantine art in its late period was the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders in April 1204. A mass transportation of Byzantine artworks started to western Europe. Relics of Christian religion were moved from churches where they originally reposed to churches and monasteries of Italy and France. Sculptures, vessels, enamels, books, chalices, reliefs, and many other works of art were exported from the Byzantine republic to royal residences. By the time Louis XIV came to the throne, the Louvre could boast a vastest collection of precious Byzantine vessels (Cormack 187). At the same time, the ransacked court in Constantinople struggled to preserve at lease something of its former glory. The notable issue about the western invasion into the Byzantine empire was that on the one hand, the western people were charmed and mesmerized by masterpieces of Byzantine art which they had previously known only by copies. On the other hand, quite paradoxically, most of the innovations the westerners brought to Byzantium were totally disconnected with the historical culture of the land. The church of St Sophia in Constantinople was converted for Catholicism and left dete riorating. The new monasteries were built prevalently in western style. The cooperation of the east and the west can be traced only in the creations of Crusaders. Their mosaics, paintings, and manuscripts were therefore crucial for the development of Byzantine art in its late period. An example of mixture between western and eastern artistic styles and content can be seen in the iconic triptych from Sinai, including the scene of Coronation of the Virgin. Initially, coronation was a western procedure, and placing the Virgin on the throne next to Christ contradicted the principles of Orthodox Christianity (Cormack  190). The process of assimilation of the other culture was experienced by both the eastern and the western artists which makes it sometimes difficult to distinguish who was the real author of an artwork. After the historical events of the early thirteenth century, the Byzantine society faced a choice: whether to stick to the established traditions of Byzantine art or assi milate new ideas and techniques that came from the west. Since contacts with the west became part of daily routine in the life of Byzantine empire, the latter option appeared more likely to follow. Against this background of continuous cultural contact, the church was trying to assume a reasonable position. A profound discussion unfolded on such controversial issues of Christian religion as papal primacy, purgatory, and others (Cormack 194). Western theological works were closely studied in Byzantium and provoked some of the Byzantine people’s disappointment in Orthodoxy and adoption of Catholicism. Byzantine society was torn between two extremes: anti-papists on the one hand and disillusioned intellectuals on the other hand. In any case, the art of the time reflected the unstable situation where consistent positions were rarely followed. Being closely acquainted with the western achievements in Gothic and Renaissance art, Byzantine art consciously made its choice, either acc epting or rejecting the foreign standards. There cannot be traced any distinct and consistent line of either following the western tradition or its denial in Byzantine art of the time. Means of expression and techniques varied greatly in this period of cultural crossroads. A significant feature of contemporary Byzantine art was its utmost religious emotionality and appeal. The loss of glory and prestige of Constantinople was a hard blow for the Byzantine empire, and the attempts to restore the former influence proved in vain (Cormack 198–199). With the return of grand court and patriarch to Constantinople in 1261, there emerged a new hope for restoring the empire. Much effort was put into collecting and displaying the artifacts of the glorious past which remained after the Crusaders invasion. The prior task for raising the prestige of the Byzantine capital was refurbishment of its major shrine, the church of St Sophia. An enormous mosaic, the Deisis, was made on the southern wall of the church (Cormack 201). Over five meters in height and six meters in width, this magnificent panel depicted Christ at the Second Coming and symbolized the restoration of the Byzantine empire to its former greatness. Together with the large scale of the mosaic, it impressed by an especial intimacy and naturalism with which the figures are performed. The delicate modeling of faces in the mosaic was a bright example of early western Renaissance style adapted by Byzantine artists. The Deisis mosaic represented an icon of extraordinary scale and was not the only representative of this large-scale genre. On the other hand, late Byzantine art also produced micro-mosaic panels that were not only used in Byzantine religious practices but also became collectors’ items among the western connoisseurs (Cormack 202–203). The late thirteenth century witnessed a peculiar innovation that resulted from artistic patronage of artworks. Thus, in Constantinople, the already existi ng monasteries obtained new architectural structures and forms. The two brightest examples are the addition of a side-church to St Mary Pammakaristos and the rebuilding of the Chora Monastery (Cormack 204). The latter involved joint efforts of artists, architects, and church planners, who carried out their project by rearranging the vaults of the former katholikon, building an inner and outer narthex, and other modifications decisive for the new design. The main subject of the church were the cycles of the Life of the Virgin and the Infancy and Ministry of the Christ (Cormack  207). Focusing on salvation of the soul and significance of the Virgin, the cycles as such represent quite a traditional subject. However, this conventionality is touched up by certain innovatory findings. For one thing, the cycle contains a number of rare scenes from the life of the Virgin that had not been depicted in other locations. For another thing, different principles of perspective are used in this depiction than in traditional western Renaissance art. Thus together with adherence to Byzantine tradition, the artwork in the Chora Monastery demonstrates latent innovation that was not to draw too much attention. The fourteenth century witnessed sufficient change in the art of iconography. The templon screen that covered the sanctuary gradually evolved into a whole iconostasis holding several layers of icons (Cormack 210). The range and complexity of the church interior cycles increased, as did the range of spiritual experience depicted in the icons. Another innovation was including the personal signature of the artist in the icon or wall painting. This tradition rooted in the western art which emphasized the growing social status of artists and presented their work as goods contesting for popularity among consumers. Although the Orthodox church discouraged such approach, artistic individuality and style became quite prominent during the period. An example of an outstanding icon p ainter can be found in the figure of Theophanes the Greek who worked in Moscow and Novgorod. Works Cited Cormack, Robert. Byzantine Art. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000. Print. This critical writing on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack was written and submitted by user Tyree Y. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

US Social Security vs. Canadian Social Security

US Social Security vs. Canadian Social Security Introduction The increasing challenge posed by an increase in the elderly population creates the need to deploy social security services. Demographic patterns on the provision of social services are estimated to increase drastically in the future.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on US Social Security vs. Canadian Social Security specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the United States, the notable demographic trends that are likely to impose significant pressures on social security includes the anticipated retirement of the baby boomers cohort, a reduction in the fertility rates and increases in life expectancy are estimated to pose a large increase in the old-age dependency ratio (Feldstein Liebman, 2002). The main purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the United States with the Canadian social security system. The paper provides an overview of the United States and Canadian social security system, af ter which the paper discusses the objective similarities and differences between the two systems. In addition the paper also provides a subjective analysis that is based on the current evaluation of the United States social security system against the Canadian system. Basing on the research, the paper provides recommendations for improving the United States social security system. Introduction to the United States Social Security system In the US, social security mainly involves the Old-Age, Survivors and Disability Insurance (OASDI) scheme that is administered by the federal government. Social Security in the United States was first adopted during 1935; subsequent amendments have resulted to the inclusion of social welfare and social insurance. Major components of the United States social security also include the Supplemental Security Income, various unemployment benefits, offering aid to the needy families, grants issued to the states by the federal government for the purposes of Medical Assistance Programs (Medicaid), Health Insurance for the Aged and Disabled (Medicare) and the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Giles, 2005). Social security in the United States is mainly financed using dedicated payroll taxes that are referred to as the Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax. Social security in the United States is largely concerned with the benefits associated with retirement, unemployment, cases of disability, death and survivorship (Hyman, 2010).Advertising Looking for research paper on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Social Security in the United States is considered as the largest government program in the globe that takes a significant portion of the federal budget. In addition, social security is the biggest social insurance program in the United States. It is estimated that social security in the United States has helped to keep 40 percent of peopl e aged over 65 years out of poverty. Introduction to Canadian social security Canadian social security comprises of approximately 2.3 percent of the Gross Domestic product, the Pay-as-you-go component Canadian social security is relatively small compared to the United States. Old Age Security (OAS) program is one of the core elements of elderly income transfers in Canada. The Guaranteed Income Supplement is used to increase the income levels for aged individuals in Canada. Another important element of Canadian social security is the Canadian Pension Plan and the Quebec Pension plan, which are mainly funded by the joint monetary contributions from employers and employees. Canadians contribute 4.95 percent tax on their income from USD 3500 to USD 41000 (Orszag Diamond, 2005). Social security in Canada mainly involves the government programs that are adopted with the main objective of offering assistance to its citizens and covers diverse programs that are mostly run by the provinces. In Canada, the social safety net is mainly concerned with the transfer payments that are directed at low income citizens only. It does not incorporate expenditures associated with healthcare services and education (Weisbrot Baker, 2001). Similarities between the United States and Canadian security services In the US, social security denotes the funds that the individuals pay during their working life, which mainly comprises of the retirement benefits during old age. This is a similar approach under the Canadian social security that is implemented using the Canadian Pension Plan. In the United States, employees contribute 5.65 percent of their earnings towards their social security and Medicare, which is used for offering medical insurance for aged and retired people.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on US Social Security vs. Canadian Social Security specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The social security premium s in the US are capped at earnings of USD 106,800 while there is no capping of the premiums for Medicare (Hyman, 2010). Canadians contribute 4.95 percent of their total earnings towards the CPP. Socialized healthcare plan in Canada are somewhat similar to the Medicare program in the context of the United States (Orszag Diamond, 2005). Another similarity between the United States and Canadian social security systems is that they both make use of the pay-as-you-go scheme, although the United States system is relatively high compared to the Canadian system. Bo the social security systems can be considered to a hybrid between the PAYGO plan and a fully financed program (Hyman, 2010). Differences between the United States and Canadian social security system A notable difference between the two systems is the scope of coverage of social security. In this context, the Canadian social security system does not have provisions for education and healthcare expenditure, which are provided in t he social security system in the United States (Giles, 2005). The second difference between the two systems is that the United States expenditures on social security are relatively higher compared to the Canadian expenditure on social security. For instance, the Old Age and Survivors comprise of 6 percent of the United States GDP, compared to Canada that allocate 4.2 percent of its GDP. In addition, Canada spends relatively twice as much as the amount that the United States spends on unemployment benefits (Hyman, 2010). Another difference between the two systems is that the CPP is a reserve fund that is invested in the market; this is contrary to the social security funds that are invested in government securities and bonds. Investing the CPP in the market resulted to 5 percent marginal difference between the returns in the United States and Canada. Evaluation of current US system against the Canadian system It is arguably evident that Canadian social security has a better establish ment compared to the United States social security system. There is a potential that the Canada Pension Plan fund will grow since it is invested in the market, making significant contributions towards its future sustainability compared to the United States social security funds that are invested in government bonds. Another reason that contributes to the effectiveness of the Canadian pension Plan when compared with the US social security system is that the benefits of the CPP are relatively lower compared to the benefits of the United States social security. The generosity of the United States social security questions its sustainability in meeting the future demands posed by the aging population (Weisbrot Baker, 2001).Advertising Looking for research paper on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Recommendations to improve the United States social security system Improving the efficiency of the United States social security requires the reinforcement of insurance and financing. With regard to insurance, it is important to maintain an appropriate balance in terms of social and individual responsibility. With regard to financing, establishing a suitable balance between pre-retirement funding and the use of the common PAYGO method will serve to address the potential challenges imposed by the demographic trends in the United States. References Feldstein, M., Liebman, J. (2002). The Distributional Aspects of Social Security and Social Security Reform. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Giles, C. (2005). US social security is among least generous. Web. Hyman, D. (2010). Public Finance: A Contemporary Application of Theory to Policy. New York: Cengage Learning. Orszag, P., Diamond, P. (2005). Saving Social Security-A Balanced Approach. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Pres s. Weisbrot, M., Baker, D. (2001). Social Security: The Phony Crisis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Debate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Debate - Essay Example However, the definition of freedom varies from culture to culture depending on different traditions, religions and family restrictions but the best is defined by Europeans. According to them a person is allowed to do anything unless or until it starts affecting any other’s person. Though we believe now that everyone is born free but it cost people quite heavy to attain it in history. In the Civil War, thousands of people were murdered. Black people had an argument that they were being treated unfairly in the country, they struggled for their rights and freedom. For instance, in a bus if all the seats are filled and a white person get into the bus, the black person who is already sitting has to give his seat to him. This took them very long and the issue got a vibe after a lady Rosa Parks stood against. History is full of heroes and veterans who fought for the freedom. Men and Women struggled for their peaceful lives when they had a choice of living freely or to be scared all their life (The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights). Freedom is a precious thing and its importance can be asked from those who are still struggling from it like people in Palestine, Kashmir or Syria. Discrimination among cultures, races, religions and countries have been very vibrant in the history. Later on, developed societies made a policy for the protection of minorities, women or any group who has been affected by discrimination in the history. People argue differently for this policy. Some are against it while others are quite happy about the policy. Those who believe that this policy is essential for the individuals to live in prosperity argue that world is a global village and no one can discriminate any other person on any basis. Everyone has the right to live whether he belongs to a specific society or not. In this scenario, affirmative action works as a shield for such people. It creates diversity in a society and brings in new